What If Mark Antony and Cleopatra Had Won? Experts Weigh In on Rome’s Fate

History is often decided by moments so pivotal that a single victory or defeat can shape the destiny of empires. One of the most famous turning points in ancient history is the Battle of Actium in 31 BCE, where the forces of Mark Antony and Cleopatra faced off against Octavian, the future Emperor Augustus, and lost. Their defeat not only ended Mark Antony and Cleopatra’s ambitions but also set the stage for Octavian’s rise and the transformation of the Roman Republic into an empire.

But what if events had gone differently? What could have been the fate of Rome if Mark Antony and Cleopatra had emerged victorious? Scholars examining these “what ifs” offer a fascinating glimpse into how fragile the course of history truly is.

 

Mark Antony and Cleopatra, and the Road to Actium

Following the assassination of Julius Caesar in 44 BC, Rome plunged into civil war. Antony, a loyal supporter and general under Caesar, aligned with Octavian and Lepidus in the Second Triumvirate to defeat the assassins of Caesar. Together, they achieved victory at the Battle of Philippi in 42 BC, but the alliance among the triumvirs soon became strained as ambitions and personal rivalries emerged.

Antony’s relationship with Cleopatra VII, the queen of Egypt, further complicated matters, drawing him deeper into Eastern affairs and distancing him from Rome’s traditional political circles.

According to experts, Antony’s entanglement with Cleopatra was as much political as romantic. Their partnership consolidated power in the Eastern Mediterranean, but it also fueled propaganda campaigns in Rome that painted Antony as a figure seduced by foreign luxury and decadence. This perception of moral and political corruption gave Octavian an opening to portray himself as the defender of Roman values, ultimately setting the stage for confrontation. 

At Actium, Octavian’s fleet, under the skilled command of Agrippa, decisively outmaneuvered Antony’s forces. Cleopatra’s squadron famously fled the battle, and Antony followed, leaving their army in disarray. In the aftermath, both Mark Antony and Cleopatra would die by suicide, and Egypt would be annexed as a Roman province. Yet scholars like Jeffrey Tatum, Lee Fratantuono, Jane Draycott, and Prudence Jones invite us to imagine a scenario in which the outcome had been reversed. What might Rome and the Mediterranean world have looked like?

 

Cleopatra’s Influence: A Queen Limited to the East?

A central question in this alternate history is the extent of Cleopatra’s influence in Rome. Jeffrey Tatum argues that even if Mark Antony and Cleopatra had defeated Octavian, her power within Rome would likely have been constrained. As an Egyptian queen ruling a wealthy and independent kingdom, she was not a member of the Roman aristocracy, and cultural prejudice among the Roman elite would have limited her acceptance.

Tatum suggests that Cleopatra would have maintained control over Egypt and possibly other Eastern territories, but her role in Rome’s political heart would have been largely symbolic, serving as a powerful client ruler rather than an integrated political leader.

Lee Fratantuono echoes this view, emphasizing that Roman society was deeply suspicious of foreign rulers, especially those associated with Hellenistic courts.

While Cleopatra’s intelligence, charisma, and political skill were undeniable, her presence in Rome might have provoked tension among senators and citizens who feared the influence of Eastern monarchs. In this scenario, Cleopatra’s authority would have been substantial in Egypt and allied regions, but she would have faced limitations in reshaping the institutions of Rome itself. 

The Future of Antony’s Lineage

Another consideration is the succession and the future of Antony’s children with Cleopatra. Jane Draycott highlights that a victory could have secured the lives and positions of their offspring, potentially establishing a new dynasty that blended Roman and Egyptian heritage.

Unlike Octavian’s singular line, this alternate dynasty might have reinforced the political alliance between East and West and created a more pluralistic imperial family. The survival of Mark Antony and Cleopatra’s heirs would have presented both opportunities and challenges, as traditional Roman norms often conflicted with dynastic monarchies.

Draycott notes that these children could have served as cultural and political bridges between Rome and Alexandria, fostering continuity in governance while promoting closer integration of Eastern traditions within a Roman context. This scenario suggests a very different imperial landscape, where dynastic succession carried both legitimacy and controversy across the Mediterranean world. 

 

Shared Rule: A Possible Roman-Egyptian Alliance

Prudence Jones explores the intriguing possibility of a shared rule, where Antony might have retained Roman command while Cleopatra consolidated her authority in Egypt. In this vision, the Mediterranean could have experienced a form of dual governance, balancing Roman institutions in the West with Ptolemaic influence in the East. Jones argues that such an arrangement might have fostered greater cultural exchange, strengthened political alliances, and offered an alternative model to Octavian’s centralized empire.

In this scenario, Alexandria would not only remain a center of wealth and learning but could have rivaled Rome as a cultural capital. The Eastern Mediterranean might have flourished as a hub of administration, trade, and education, integrating Hellenistic and Roman traditions in ways that never occurred under Augustus. 

Could the Republic Have Survived?

One of the most fascinating questions in this “what could have been” scenario concerns the survival of Republican traditions. Jeffrey Tatum suggests that Antony, while militarily powerful, might have preserved more republican elements than Octavian ultimately did. Rather than abolishing the Senate’s authority entirely, Antony could have restored certain powers to Rome’s legislative body while maintaining the necessary military command to defend the empire.

This approach might have delayed or prevented the full centralization of power, leaving Rome with a hybrid system that combined executive authority in its leaders with enduring political institutions. The Republic, though transformed, could have endured in some form, preserving traditions that were ultimately overshadowed by Augustus’ imperial reforms. 

Cultural Implications of a Mark Antony and Cleopatra Victory

A triumph for Mark Antony and Cleopatra could also have reshaped the cultural identity of the Mediterranean world. With Cleopatra’s influence entrenched in Egypt and allied territories, Greek and Egyptian traditions might have exerted more influence across Rome’s eastern holdings. While the Latin language and Roman law remained important, Eastern cultural elements could have played a more prominent role in shaping governance, art, and philosophy.

Prudence Jones and other scholars speculate that religion, literature, and civic life could have seen a richer blending of traditions, producing a Mediterranean world that was more cosmopolitan and culturally syncretic. Temples, schools, and institutions might have reflected this fusion, leaving a legacy distinct from the Rome-centric empire that emerged under Augustus. 

 

Conclusion: The Fragile Line Between History and Possibility

While history ultimately followed the path of Octavian’s victory, imagining the triumph of Antony and Cleopatra offers profound insights into the contingency of historical events. Scholars like Jeffrey Tatum, Lee Fratantuono, Jane Draycott, and Prudence Jones remind us that the ancient world was not predestined to become the empire we know from textbooks.

Personal alliances, strategic decisions, and cultural perceptions all converged to shape outcomes, but a single different decision at Actium could have rewritten the Mediterranean story.

In this alternate history, Rome might have experienced a shared rule with Alexandria, preserved elements of the Republic, and seen a richer cultural fusion across its territories. Cleopatra’s legacy could have extended far beyond Egypt, and Antony’s military and political strategies might have reshaped Roman governance for generations.

While we will never know precisely what could have been, this exercise highlights the delicate balance of power, personality, and chance in shaping human history. Still, the story of Mark Antony and Cleopatra remains.