The assassination of the first Roman Emperor Julius Caesar on March 15, 44 BC, marked a pivotal moment in Roman and world history. His murder, orchestrated by a faction worried about his growing power, left Rome in turmoil. Despite being a celebrated leader among the people, Caesar was seen as a potential threat to the Republic by many in the Senate. His death without a legitimate heir complicated the political landscape. Caesar’s will named his grandnephew, Gaius Octavian, as his heir, setting the stage for a dramatic power struggle in the Roman political arena.
Octavian’s inheritance brought him into conflict with some of Caesar’s former allies, including Mark Antony. Despite his youth, Octavian quickly demonstrated political savvy, aligning with key players to form the Second Triumvirate with Mark Antony and Lepidus. This alliance temporarily divided the vast Roman territories among them. However, tensions, particularly involving Antony’s relationship with Cleopatra of Egypt, eventually led to further conflicts. Octavian emerged victorious, establishing himself as the first emperor of Rome under the title Augustus. His reign heralded the Pax Romana, a period of unprecedented peace and prosperity, reshaping Rome and leaving a lasting legacy.
Key Takeaways
- Julius Caesar’s assassination disrupted Rome’s political order.
- Octavian’s rise to power changed Rome’s leadership dynamic.
- Augustus’s rule marked the beginning of a new era in Roman history.
The Murder of Julius Caesar
Julius Caesar was killed on March 15, 44 BC. This event marked a turning point in Western history. During a meeting of the Roman Senate, a group of political conspirators assassinated Caesar. The assassins believed this was necessary to protect the Roman Republic from Caesar’s growing power.
Without any recognized Roman heirs, Caesar’s son with Cleopatra, Caesarion, was not considered a citizen. In his will, Caesar chose his great-nephew, Gaius Octavian, as his heir. This choice greatly impacted Octavian, who later became Augustus, the first Emperor of Rome.
After Caesar’s death, a government crisis emerged. The senators involved in the plot failed to anticipate Caesar’s popularity among the people. Mark Antony, a former associate of Caesar, quickly informed the public about the murder. In response, an angry mob gathered and set fire to the Senate House.
At the time of Caesar’s assassination, Gaius Octavian, then 17 years old, was undergoing military training in Apollonia. Despite warnings to stay safe in Macedonia, he traveled to Italy to assess his political situation. After reading Caesar’s will at Lupiae, near Brundisium, he decided to accept his role as Caesar’s political heir and claim two-thirds of his estates.
Octavian faced opposition from key figures in Rome, such as Mark Antony and Aemilius Lepidus. They controlled Rome’s political scene, dividing power among themselves. Unable to access his rightful inheritance, Octavian garnered support from Caesar’s former followers, including military legions.
The Second Triumvirate Table
| Person | Territory |
|---|---|
| Mark Antony | Eastern regions |
| Lepidus | African regions |
| Octavian | Western regions |
In 43 BC, Octavian, Antony, and Lepidus formed the Second Triumvirate to distribute Roman power and prevent civil unrest. However, the alliance soon deteriorated. In 41 BC, Antony allied with Cleopatra, the Egyptian queen and Caesar’s former lover. Despite Antony’s marriage to Octavian’s sister, he left her for Cleopatra, angering Octavian.
Octavian declared war on Cleopatra, leading to the Battle of Actium on September 2, 31 BC. Octavian’s navy defeated Antony’s forces. Antony and Cleopatra retreated to Egypt, where they took their own lives. With Lepidus politically weakened, Octavian established himself as Rome’s sole leader.
Yet, Octavian avoided the pitfalls of dictatorship. He gained the Senate’s support and kept up the republic’s traditions. On January 16, 27 BC, the Senate honored him with the titles Augustus and Princeps. Augustus later adopted the name Caesar to forge a connection with his late uncle.
Julius Caesar’s Successor and the Rise of Octavian
The assassination of Julius Caesar on March 15, 44 BC marked a pivotal shift in Roman history. Without a legal heir, as his son with Cleopatra, Caesarion, was not recognized as a Roman citizen, Caesar named his great-nephew Gaius Octavian as his successor. This decision altered the course of Octavian’s life, shaping him into Augustus, Rome’s first emperor.
At the young age of 17, Gaius Octavian was pursuing his studies and military training in Apollonia when Caesar was killed. Ignoring advice to seek refuge with his troops, Octavian sailed to Italy to secure any political or financial resources. He read Caesar’s will upon landing, choosing to assert his role as political heir, inheriting two-thirds of Caesar’s estate.
Rome, at the time, was in turmoil, with power divided among the prominent figures Council, Mark Antony, and Aemilius Lepidus. Octavian encountered resistance from Antony but managed to rally many of Caesar’s former supporters. In 43 BC, an alliance known as the Second Triumvirate was formed by Octavian, Antony, and Lepidus, sharing control over Roman territories.
Despite their truce, political tensions culminated in 32 BC when Antony allied himself with Cleopatra, leading Octavian to declare war against her. The subsequent Battle of Actium in 31 BC saw Octavian’s forces prevail, forcing Antony and Cleopatra to retreat to Egypt, where they later committed suicide.
With political adversaries diminished, Octavian consolidated power in Rome. He adeptly maintained the illusion of republican governance, earning him the titles Augustus and Princeps from the Senate on January 16, 27 BC. His title later evolved into Emperor Caesar Augustus, and following emperors would adopt “Augustus” as a primary designation. Augustus rebranded the month “Sextillis” to “August” in his honor. By 19 BC, Augustus wielded supreme control across Roman provinces, shaping him into a model ruler for future emperors.
Augustus’s personal character evolved over time; what was seen as cruelty in his youth softened as his control stabilized. Renowned for his charisma and humor, he still enforced strict moral standards. His reign brought about a Pax Romana, a peaceful period marked by economic and artistic growth. Yet, the defeat in the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest blemished his triumphant era. Augustus’s demise, at 75, led to his selected heir, Tiberius, taking over, signaling a calculated transfer of power. His last words reflected his transformative impact on Rome, draping the city in an enduring legacy.
The Divide in Rome’s Leadership
The assassination of Julius Caesar on March 15, 44 BC, marked a seismic shift in Roman governance. Julius Caesar, once a beloved general and leader, was killed by a faction of politicians who feared he threatened the Roman Republic’s foundations. Although these conspirators believed their actions would restore balance, they underestimated Caesar’s popularity among the Roman populace. Mark Antony, a close ally of Caesar, swiftly took action to alert Rome’s citizens about the murder. In reaction, a furious crowd set the Senate house on fire.
At the time of Caesar’s death, his great-nephew Gaius Octavian was away, engaged in study and military training in Illyria. Learning of his abrupt rise to power, Octavian chose a bold path by traveling to Italy, seeking acknowledgment as Caesar’s successor. His arrival, however, was met with challenges. Power in Rome was split between influential figures but Octavian, demonstrating keen political acumen, sought to secure his rightful place as Caesar’s heir. This led to the formation of the Second Triumvirate in 43 BC, involving Octavian, Mark Antony, and Lepidus. They divided Rome’s vast territories among themselves to restore political equilibrium.
However, dissent soon emerged within this alliance. Mark Antony’s relationship with Cleopatra stirred conflict. Their partnership, both romantic and political, strained relations with Octavian, especially after Antony’s controversial divorce from Octavian’s sister. In response, Octavian declared war on Cleopatra, culminating in a decisive naval battle at Actium in 31 BC. Octavian’s victory led to Antony and Cleopatra’s eventual downfall in Egypt, where they took their own lives.
With his rivals diminished or eliminated, Octavian became Rome’s preeminent ruler. Yet, understanding the risks of absolute power, he cleverly upheld republican ideals while consolidating his authority. The Senate recognized his leadership by bestowing titles that symbolized his control and honor, marking the beginning of a new era in Rome under the guidance of the first emperor, Augustus.
Julius Caesar’s Fame and the Senate’s Wrong Assumptions
Julius Caesar was a well-known Roman general and leader who was greatly admired by many. When he was killed on March 15, 44 BC, a major shift occurred in Roman history. Some politicians in the Senate had plotted his death to prevent him from taking control away from the Republic. They didn’t consider how much the people loved Caesar and how they would react to his death.
Mark Antony, a loyal friend and general under Caesar, quickly informed everyone about the assassination. Angered by the news, a crowd gathered and burned the Senate house. Caesar’s chosen heir was his great-nephew, Gaius Octavian, who later became known as Augustus, the first emperor of Rome.
Octavian was a young man, just 17, studying in a distant Roman city when Caesar was assassinated. Despite advice to stay safe with troops in Macedonia, Octavian sailed to Italy to claim his inheritance. The political scene was tense, with power held by Mark Antony and another important Senate figure, Lepidus. Octavian’s rightful inheritance was in question, but he managed to gain support from Caesar’s allies.
This played a significant role in forming the Second Triumvirate with Antony and Lepidus. The plan was to avoid civil war by dividing Rome’s territories among them. It was an uneasy peace. Octavian eventually defeated Antony, who had allied with Cleopatra of Egypt, in a famous naval battle. After Antony’s fall, Octavian became the single ruler of Rome, but he was careful not to repeat Caesar’s fate. He gained the titles Augustus and Princeps, wisely balancing power with the Senate and respecting Roman traditions.
Early Challenges Faced by Gaius Octavian
In 44 BC, the political landscape of Rome was thrown into disarray with the assassination of Julius Caesar. Despite the turmoil, this moment marked the dawn of a new era for Gaius Octavian, Caesar’s 17-year-old great-nephew and heir. At the time, Octavian was in Illyria, receiving military training. Many advised him to seek safety with his troops in Macedonia. Yet, Octavian took a bold risk by traveling to Italy, intent on understanding the implications of his newfound inheritance.
Once in Italy, Octavian learned of Caesar’s will, appointing him both as heir and beneficiary of much of Caesar’s estate. Rome’s power structure, however, was split among key figures: Marc Antony, a former ally of Caesar, and Emilius Lepidus, a leading senator. Octavian faced resistance, particularly from Antony, who initially withheld funds due to Octavian. Despite his youth, Octavian managed to align himself with Caesar’s supporters, including several legions.
In 43 BC, Octavian brokered a power-sharing pact with Antony and Lepidus, known as the Second Triumvirate. This agreement divided Rome’s territories among them, temporarily restoring stability. The east fell under Antony’s control, Africa went to Lepidus, and the west to Octavian. Yet, tensions soon arose, notably when Antony allied with Cleopatra of Egypt, a move that strained relations further. Eventually, these tensions would spark a series of conflicts, culminating in a historic naval confrontation.
The Battle for Legacy and Power
In the aftermath of Julius Caesar’s assassination on March 15, 44 BC, Rome faced a significant upheaval. Without a legal heir, the future of leadership was uncertain. Although Caesar had a son, Caesarion, with Cleopatra, he was not recognized as a Roman citizen. Instead, Caesar named his great-nephew, Gaius Octavian, as his heir. This unexpected choice dramatically altered Octavian’s path, eventually leading him to become Rome’s first emperor, known as Augustus.
Learning of Caesar’s death while studying in Apollonia, Octavian decided against seeking refuge. He headed to Italy to assess any potential assets or support he could claim. He encountered opposition, particularly from Mark Antony, who contested Octavian’s claim to his inheritance. Despite the challenges, Octavian showed strategic acumen beyond his years. He gradually gathered support from Caesar’s allies and even some military legions.
In 43 BC, Octavian allied with Mark Antony and Marcus Aemilius Lepidus to form the Second Triumvirate, dividing control of Roman territories among themselves. Octavian received the West, Antony the East, and Lepidus Africa. Yet, this power-sharing was short-lived. Tensions rose when Antony formed a romantic and political partnership with Cleopatra, defying a senatorial order to marry Octavian’s sister, Octavia. This political maneuvering led to the pivotal Battle of Actium in 31 BC, where Octavian defeated Antony and Cleopatra.
Following their defeat, Antony and Cleopatra retreated to Egypt and eventually took their own lives. With Lepidus politically weakened, Octavian swiftly moved to consolidate full control over Rome. By skillfully courting the Roman Senate and citizens, he preserved the facade of republican ideals, avoiding the pitfalls that led to his great-uncle’s downfall. This careful balance earned him the prestigious titles of Augustus and Princeps.
Under Augustus’s rule, Rome flourished. The era known as Pax Romana saw advances in various areas, such as architecture and legal reforms. Nonetheless, Augustus experienced setbacks, such as the defeat in the Teutoburg Forest, which curbed Roman expansion into Germania. Despite these challenges, Augustus’s reign marked a period of significant transformation, setting a precedent for future emperors of Rome.
Creation of the Second Triumvirate
In 43 BC, a significant power arrangement was established to stabilize Rome’s political atmosphere. This was known as the Second Triumvirate, a formal alliance between Octavian, Mark Antony, and Emilius Lepidus. This agreement was designed to distribute control over Rome’s territories among the three leaders. Octavian took charge of the western regions, Antony governed the east, and Lepidus controlled Africa.
The formation of the Triumvirate provided a temporary balance of power and was aimed at thwarting the threat of civil unrest following the chaos stirred by Julius Caesar’s assassination. Despite its initial purpose, this alliance set the stage for conflict and rivalry, especially between Octavian and Mark Antony.
Antony’s interactions with Cleopatra, including a political and romantic relationship, fueled tensions. Octavian used these circumstances to his advantage, leading to a war declaration against Cleopatra. Eventually, the alliance unraveled, and Octavian outmaneuvered his rivals to become the dominant force in Rome.
The Clash Between Octavian and Mark Antony Over Cleopatra
Tensions increased when Mark Antony, entangled romantically and politically with Cleopatra, Queen of Egypt, divorced Octavian’s sister, Octavia. This separation was a strategic barrier to the unity initially attempted between Octavian and Antony. Antony’s continued alliance with Cleopatra was crucial in turning Octavian against him.
Octavian saw Antony’s bond with Cleopatra as a threat to Rome’s stability. Antony’s dismissal of his marriage to Octavia and devotion to Cleopatra provoked Octavian to act. In response, he initiated a crucial war against Cleopatra, which inevitably included Antony due to their connection.
The decisive confrontation, known as the Battle of Actium, happened on September 2, 31 BC. Octavian’s fleet strategically outmaneuvered Antony’s forces. Although Cleopatra tried to aid in this naval conflict, their combined forces were ultimately defeated. Antony and Cleopatra fled back to Egypt, where they both committed suicide later.
This victory marked a turning point, paving the way for Octavian to strengthen his grip over Rome and eventually transform into Augustus, the first emperor of Rome. The political landscape of Rome was altered dramatically following the fall of Antony and Cleopatra.
The Clash at Actium and the Downfall of Antony and Cleopatra
The infamous Battle of Actium took place on September 2, 31 BC. It marked the decisive and brutal engagement between Octavian and the combined forces of Mark Antony and Cleopatra. The naval clash was pivotal in the power struggle that followed Julius Caesar’s assassination. Tensions had risen after Antony’s alliance with Cleopatra, which led to political and romantic ties but also caused friction with Rome, especially with Octavian.
Key Details:
- Date: September 2, 31 BC
- Location: Near the waters of Actium, Greece
- Combatants: Octavian’s fleet versus Antony and Cleopatra’s combined forces
In the conflict, Octavian’s forces managed to corner Antony’s ships. Despite their formidable alliance, Antony and Cleopatra were outmaneuvered and ultimately defeated. Cleopatra had attempted to assist Antony with her navy, but the battle’s tide turned against them. Both managed to flee the battlefield and retreated to Egypt.
Upon returning to Egypt, the defeated leaders faced the sobering reality of their loss. With no viable path forward and their hopes dashed, Antony and Cleopatra chose to end their lives. Their downfall marked a significant shift in power dynamics, allowing Octavian to position himself as the uncontested ruler of Rome. This victory paved the way for Octavian—later known as Augustus—to emerge as Rome’s first emperor, shaping the future of the Roman Empire.
The Fall of Emilius Lepidus
Emilius Lepidus started as a key figure in Rome, playing a major part in the creation of the Second Triumvirate. This agreement split Rome’s territories among Lepidus, along with Mark Antony and Octavian. Lepidus was given control over Africa, providing him with significant influence.
Over time, Lepidus found himself on shaky ground. As Octavian sought to secure complete control of Rome, Lepidus faced political challenges. He lacked the power to resist Octavian’s growing strength, leading to his eventual political downfall.
Stripped of power, Lepidus retreated from the political spotlight. This allowed Octavian to emerge as the undisputed ruler of Rome, setting the stage for a new era in Roman history.
Augustus: The First Emperor of Rome
On March 15, 44 BC, Julius Caesar was assassinated by political conspirators during a Senate meeting. This action was meant to protect the Roman Republic’s ideals. Caesar had no recognized Roman heirs; his son with Cleopatra, Caesarion, was not acknowledged as a Roman citizen. Instead, Caesar’s will named his great-nephew, Gaius Octavian, as his heir. This decision catapulted Octavian into a prominent role, eventually leading him to become Rome’s first emperor, Augustus.
Following Caesar’s assassination, Rome was thrown into chaos. Conspirators underestimated Caesar’s popularity, and angry Romans burned the Senate House. At the time of Caesar’s death, 17-year-old Octavian was studying military skills in Apollonia. Despite warnings to stay safe in Macedonia, Octavian sailed to Italy, assessing his position and reading Caesar’s will. He discovered that he was not only Caesar’s political heir but also the inheritor of two-thirds of Caesar’s estates.
While power in Rome was divided between Mark Antony and Aemilius Lepidus, Octavian’s resourcefulness won him support from Caesar’s former allies. In 43 BC, Octavian, Antony, and Lepidus formed the Second Triumvirate, dividing Rome’s territories among themselves. Peace was temporary; in 41 BC, Antony’s affair with Cleopatra led to friction with Octavian. Antony divorced Octavian’s sister, Octavia, to be with Cleopatra. This prompted Octavian to declare war on Cleopatra, resulting in the Battle of Actium on September 2, 31 BC, where Octavian’s forces defeated Antony and Cleopatra.
Lepidus proved a weak opponent, allowing Octavian to consolidate power. Rather than claiming absolute power too quickly, Octavian wisely appealed to the Senate and people by respecting republican traditions. On January 16, 27 BC, he was granted the titles Augustus and Princeps by the Senate, becoming known as Gaius Julius Caesar Octavian Augustus. The month of August was named in his honor.
Augustus ruled as Emperor Caesar Augustus, gaining complete control over the Roman Empire by 19 BC. Under Augustus, Rome enjoyed a period of peace and prosperity known as the Pax Romana. He focused on civic projects, restored 82 temples, and implemented reforms to stabilize family life and marriages.
Despite this success, Augustus’s reign faced challenges. The defeat at the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest in 9 AD, led by the Germanic officer Arminius, halted Roman expansion into Germania and deeply affected Augustus.
Augustus’s health declined as he aged, and he prepared for a seamless transition of power to his adopted son, Tiberius. Augustus died in 14 AD in the city of Nola. His final words indicated his pride in transforming Rome: “I found Rome built of bricks; I leave her clothed in marble.” Augustus’s death marked the end of a pivotal era for Rome, reflecting his significant influence and leadership.
Personal Traits and Policies of Emperor Augustus
Appearance and Personality
Augustus, often described as having a small stature and handsome features, presented himself with the charisma expected of a leader. Though initially known for his cruelty in youth, he became more temperate with age, balancing kindness with the readiness to be strict when needed. His ability to handle humor and criticism showcased a unique character for a ruler.
Emphasis on Family Values
Augustus held strict views on morals and family values, likely influenced by his revered great-uncle, Julius Caesar. This dedication to public morality was evident when he exiled his daughter, Julia, for her actions that he felt dishonored their family name.
Economic and Cultural Reforms
During his reign, Augustus launched many projects to enhance Rome’s culture and infrastructure. His efforts led to a significant flourish in arts, economy, and construction, signified by completing about 82 temples. The establishment of famous Roman baths and various architectural innovations under his rule emphasized his vision for Rome’s grandeur.
Pax Romana and Legal Reforms
His leadership marked a period known as the Pax Romana, characterized by peace and prosperity. Augustus promoted stability through reforms in marriage laws and measures to increase birth rates, reflecting his commitment to social order and continuity. This period is seen as a golden age for Rome, attributable to the comprehensive policies initiated by Augustus.
Military Challenges
Despite many achievements, Augustus faced significant military setbacks, such as the ambush of Roman legions in the Battle of Teutoburg Forest. This disaster marked a pivotal point, curtailing Augustus’s expansionist ambitions in Germania. His reaction to this defeat, reportedly repeating “Quintilius Varus, give me back my legions,” underscores the impact it had on him personally.
Succession Planning
As his health declined, Augustus made careful plans for succession, naming his adopted son, Tiberius, as heir. Augustus passed away at 75, and his capable management ensured a relatively smooth transition of power, marking the end of a transformative era for the Roman Empire. His eventual cremation and interment in a mausoleum in Rome reflect the lasting respect and admiration he commanded.
The Era of Roman Peace and Prosperity
The Pax Romana, a time of widespread peace throughout Rome, began with the reign of Augustus. After Julius Caesar’s assassination created turmoil, Augustus rose to power and became Rome’s first emperor. His leadership initiated a golden age marked by stability and growth.
In Augustus’s rule, the arts, economy, and agriculture thrived. The Roman Empire expanded, bringing peace and prosperity. Augustus embarked on an ambitious building program in Rome, constructing and restoring 82 temples in one year. Public baths, another hallmark of Roman infrastructure, were also developed during this period.
Under Augustus, Rome’s society experienced many changes. Laws and reforms were introduced to strengthen marriages and increase the birth rate, promoting moral standards inspired by Julius Caesar. Despite this progress, Rome faced challenges, such as the disastrous loss at the Battle of Teutoburg Forest, which halted Roman expansion into Germania.
Augustus’s later years were spent preparing for a smooth transition of power. He selected Tiberius, his adopted son, as his successor. Upon his death in 14 A.D., Augustus left a legacy of stability and progress, shaping the Roman Empire for future generations.
Changes and Infrastructure Projects During Augustus’s Reign
Augustus, the first emperor of Rome, was known for his ambitious public works and reforms that transformed Rome. His reign marked the start of the Pax Romana, a period of peace and prosperity that lasted over two centuries. Under his leadership, Augustus undertook a significant number of building projects aimed at beautifying Rome.
Public Works
- Augustus claimed to have restored or erected around 82 temples in just one year.
- The famous Roman baths expanded during his rule, showcasing the advanced engineering of the time.
- He initiated a program that renovated and constructed many buildings, claiming to have found Rome a city of bricks and left it a city of marble.
Reforms
- Augustus implemented laws to stabilize marriages and boost birth rates in Rome.
- His administration focused on maintaining Roman values by passing moral reforms.
Challenges
- Despite these accomplishments, Augustus faced significant setbacks. The Battle of the Teutoburg Forest was a major defeat where three Roman legions were destroyed by a Germanic alliance.
Augustus’s projects and policies left a lasting impact on Rome, setting a precedent for future rulers of the empire.
Battle of Teutoburg Forest and Its Impact
In 9 A.D., Rome faced a devastating defeat in the Teutoburg Forest, led by Arminius, a Germanic leader with Roman military training. Three Roman legions, commanded by General Publius Quinctilius Varus, were ambushed by a coalition of Germanic tribes. The result was a significant loss for Rome, with the entire force being wiped out.
This battle abruptly halted Augustus’s period of territorial expansion. Arminius’s strategy exploited his deep understanding of Roman tactics, turning Rome’s own methods against them. The loss deeply affected Emperor Augustus, who reportedly bemoaned the loss of his legions repeatedly.
The defeat in the Teutoburg Forest had a lasting impact on Roman policies, changing their stance on expansion. Roman ambitions in Germania were curtailed, marking a decisive shift in their imperial approach. This event is considered one of the most significant military defeats in Roman history and had a profound influence on European history as well.
The Rule of Tiberius and the Passing of Augustus
Augustus selected Tiberius as his successor. Tiberius, who was Augustus’s adopted son, was prepared to take on the responsibility of leading the Roman Empire. As Augustus’s health declined, he ensured a stable transfer of power, resulting in Tiberius’s rise to the throne.
Before his death, Augustus’s health took a turn for the worse at the age of 75. He died in Nola, a city in southern Italy, in 14 A.D. His last words reportedly expressed satisfaction with his accomplishments: “I found Rome built of bricks; I leave her clothed in marble.”
Following his death, rumors circulated regarding the role of Livia Drusilla, Augustus’s wife. Some whispered that she had poisoned Augustus with figs, though many historians consider this speculation spread by political adversaries. Another theory suggests that Livia could have been involved in assisting Augustus in ending his suffering, a common noble practice at the time.
Emperor Augustus’s body was returned to Rome, where it was cremated, and his ashes were placed in his mausoleum. On the day of his funeral, Rome observed a day of mourning. His passing symbolized the end of an era, as he was seen as a visionary leader who left a lasting legacy.
