During the third century, the Roman Empire faced growing instability and division, eventually splitting into distinct eastern and western halves. While the Western Roman Empire faded, the Eastern part, later called the Byzantine Empire, held strong and watched these events unfold.
The rise of Emperor Justinian marked a new chapter for the Byzantines, as he aimed to restore former Roman lands. Justinian’s campaigns, led by his skilled general Belisarius, dramatically changed the map of North Africa and Italy. Throughout these campaigns, quick victories, bold leadership, and major turning points shaped the future of both the Byzantine Empire and the Western lands they sought to reclaim.
Key Takeaways
- The Roman Empire split due to leadership struggles and outside pressures.
- Justinian led efforts to recapture former western territories.
- Military campaigns and major battles slowly changed the control of North Africa and Italy.
Background: The Turmoil Of Rome In The Third Century
Downfall Of Emperor Severus Alexander
The end of Severus Alexander’s rule in 235 triggered deep confusion and disarray in Roman leadership. Without a steady hand at the top, the government’s control began to falter. The central authority weakened, and the cracks in the empire’s foundation started to show.
| Year | Major Event |
|---|---|
| 235 | Severus Alexander assassinated |
| 235-284 | Power struggles and frequent leadership change |
Frequent changes in emperors, along with rising threats from outside and inside the empire, led to a loss of unity. Trust in the government and stability disappeared.
Breaking Apart: The Roman Lands Divided
The instability of leadership did not just cause minor problems. It led to the empire splitting up, sometimes into two, three, or even four separate regions. These divisions weakened Rome’s overall strength and made it hard to act as a single unit.
- Regions often fought each other for power.
- Local leaders claimed control over different parts.
In time, these divisions became more established, forming what we now call the Western Roman Empire and the Eastern Roman Empire. The West entered a rapid decline, while the East was able to stabilize. These separate paths changed the future of the whole Roman world.
Justinian the Great’s Path to Power
How Justinian Became Emperor
Justinian rose to leadership in Byzantium in 527. He took the throne at a time when the Western half of the Roman Empire had already fallen, while the Eastern half managed to maintain stability. His rise followed ongoing shifts in power that split the old Empire into separate regions.
As emperor, Justinian was determined to change the Empire’s direction. His experience in the court and his connections made it possible for him to claim the highest position. With his authority, he aimed to shape events both inside and outside his lands.
| Year | Event |
|---|---|
| 527 | Justinian becomes emperor |
| 530s | Western Empire’s fall sets the stage |
| 533 | Campaigns in North Africa begin |
Justinian’s Goal: Restoring the Empire
Justinian’s main ambition was to bring back the greatness of Rome. This idea is called Renovatio Imperii, meaning “restoration of the Empire.” He started by sending his general, Belisarius, to reclaim lost Roman provinces.
Some of the first targets were the former Roman territories in North Africa, where Belisarius defeated the Vandals and retook key cities such as Carthage. Success in Africa encouraged the Byzantines to keep moving west. Soon after, Justinian’s forces went into Italy, capturing city after city and even retaking Rome itself.
Key Actions Toward Restoration:
- Sent troops to recover North Africa from Vandals
- Launched campaigns in Italy
- Gained back important regions like Carthage and Rome
Justinian’s plans showed his commitment to rebuilding the Empire’s lands and influence, even as new threats and alliances shifted the balance of power across the Mediterranean.
Reclaiming North African Lands
Crisis and Upheaval in the Vandal State
North Africa was once part of the Roman world, but after the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the Vandals controlled this region. The Vandal kingdom was thrown into chaos when King Hilderic was removed from power and jailed by his cousin Gelimer in 530. This sudden change left the kingdom weak and divided. Hilderic turned to the Byzantines, hoping for help to regain his throne.
Belisarius Begins the African War
Emperor Justinian saw an opportunity when the Vandals were vulnerable. He sent his top general, Belisarius, to lead an invasion of North Africa in 533. Belisarius arrived with about 15,000 soldiers and focused on taking back lost Roman territory. The fast attack took the Vandals by surprise. Their defenses crumbled quickly against the skilled and organized Byzantine army.
Key Points about Belisarius’ Campaign:
- Led around 15,000 men
- Landed on the African coast
- Moved quickly against surprised Vandal forces
| Leader | Side | Outcome |
|---|---|---|
| Belisarius | Byzantines | Victorious in Africa |
| Gelimer | Vandals | Surrendered to Romans |
Fall of the Capital and Vandal Resistance
Belisarius and his forces marched on Carthage, which was the main city of the Vandals. The city fell in a short amount of time. This defeat marked the collapse of Vandal resistance. By the spring after the invasion, King Gelimer surrendered fully.
- Carthage was taken quickly
- Vandal leadership gave up soon after
- Byzantine control was restored in the region
Bringing Western Lands Back Under Roman Rule
The impact of the victory went further than just North Africa. After the defeat of the Vandals, Corsica and Sardinia also came back under Roman rule. These islands had belonged to the Western Empire, so their return marked a step toward reuniting old Roman lands. The quick victories gave Justinian hope and led to even more campaigns in other regions, starting with Sicily.
List of Restored Lands:
- North Africa (Carthage and surroundings)
- Corsica
- Sardinia
Result:
The territory that had been lost when the Western Empire fell was now back under control of Byzantium. This effort was the first major success in Justinian’s plan to restore the Roman world.
Military Campaigns Throughout Italy
Conquest and Control of Sicily
After earlier victories in North Africa, Byzantine troops set their sights on Sicily. The people there often welcomed the returning Roman authority, which made the takeover quicker and less violent. Facing little resistance, the Byzantines soon gained control of Sicily. This change alarmed the Ostrogothic king, who tried and failed to negotiate a compromise with Justinian’s forces before any further fighting.
Key Points:
- Most Sicilian cities supported the Byzantines.
- Ostrogoth leadership attempted diplomacy but was ignored.
- The island served as a launching point for invasions into the mainland.
Move Into the Italian Peninsula
Once Sicily was secured, commanders advanced into southern Italy. Belisarius captured towns one after another. Regium fell first, and his army steadily moved north. Meanwhile, another Byzantine general, first Mundus and then Constantinius, campaigned in Dalmatia. Success there removed obstacles to further Eastern Roman progress.
Important Details:
- Several Italian cities were seized rapidly.
- Dalmatia came fully under Byzantine control by summer.
- Coordination between the two fronts aided the steady advance.
Taking and Defending the City of Rome
Belisarius approached Rome after a series of quick victories. By December, his troops occupied the city despite local resistance. The newly empowered Gothic king, Vitiges, soon returned with a large force and encircled Rome.
A tough siege started in the spring. For about a year, the city’s defenders held on thanks to fresh troops and supplies arriving by sea and overland routes. In March of the following year, the pressure forced Vitiges to give up the siege and move elsewhere.
| Event | Date | Outcome |
|---|---|---|
| Byzantines enter Rome | December 536 | Romans take control |
| Goths besiege the city | Spring 537 | City surrounded, heavy fighting |
| Siege ends | March 538 | Byzantines hold city, Goths retreat |
Struggle Against the Ostrogoths
The conflict in Italy did not end with the capture of Rome. Fighting continued across the region. Roman leaders Belisarius, Narses, and John started to take more cities but sometimes disagreed and acted separately.
This disunity allowed the Goths to recapture Mediolanum with tragic results for its people. Soon after, a Frankish army attacked both sides, catching everyone off guard, before disease forced them to withdraw. The Byzantines re-focused and surrounded Ravenna, the Gothic capital.
At one point, negotiations suggested splitting Italy, but Belisarius refused, aiming for full control. Eventually, Ravenna fell to the Byzantine troops. Despite their efforts, the struggle for Italy’s stability continued as resistance and warfare dragged on.
Military Leadership and Strategic Decisions
Belisarius’ Command Role
Belisarius took charge of the campaigns in North Africa and Italy. He led about 15,000 troops and quickly defeated the Vandals, capturing Carthage and expanding control over key territories.
His next campaign was in Italy, where he moved rapidly, capturing cities such as Regium and pressing onward to Rome. He demonstrated both boldness and adaptability, facing resistance from city populations and pushing forward against the Ostrogoths. When the Goths besieged Rome, Belisarius managed to hold the city through a long and difficult siege, relying on reinforcements and his ability to disrupt enemy supply lines.
After the siege, he paired with other commanders to relieve threatened cities and push back Ostrogothic advances. He often made strategic choices under pressure and resisted offers to split Italy, even when faced with political complexities from his own side.
Responsibilities of Mundus and Constantinius
General Mundus had the task of pushing into Dalmatia. He achieved some victories but his mission ended with his death, leading to a loss of progress in the area.
Constantinius then replaced Mundus and quickly managed to reclaim Dalmatia for the Byzantines. His efforts stabilized the region, which had been at risk after Mundus’s downfall.
A summary of their outcomes:
| General | Region | Result |
|---|---|---|
| Mundus | Dalmatia | Early success, later fatal loss |
| Constantinius | Dalmatia | Full recovery, improved stability |
Challenges Among Roman Leaders
The campaigns were marked by disputes between top Byzantine commanders. Divided decision-making led to indecisive moments, especially after the victories in Italy.
When Belisarius, Narses, and John led separate forces, disagreements allowed the Goths to retake Mediolanum, causing a major loss. These arguments and a fractured command exposed weaknesses in the Byzantine leadership structure.
Only after giving Belisarius sole command did operations regain focus. However, later in the war, as the Franks unexpectedly entered the conflict and chaos increased, these recurring tensions among commanders continued to affect the effectiveness of the military campaigns.
Key Sieges and Critical Shifts
Capture and Defense of Rome
In late 536, Belisarius and his troops made their way to Rome after a series of victories in southern Italy. The people of Rome, already aware of Belisarius’s reputation from earlier campaigns, quickly surrendered the city. Soon afterward, Vitiges took command of the Ostrogoths and began assembling a force to reclaim Rome.
By the spring of 537, the Goths had encircled the city, beginning a siege that would last about a year. Supplies ran low, and life inside the city grew harsh for both soldiers and civilians. The siege ended in 538 when reinforcements from the east cut off the Gothic supply lines, trapping Vitiges’s army without needed resources. Facing worsening conditions, the Goths decided to abandon their efforts and left Rome.
- Key Points:
- Rome was captured by Belisarius in December 536.
- The city was besieged from Spring 537 to Spring 538.
- Gothic forces withdrew after their supply lines were cut.
| Event | Date | Outcome |
|---|---|---|
| Belisarius takes Rome | Dec 536 | City changes hands peacefully |
| Gothic siege of Rome begins | Spring 537 | City under siege nearly 1 year |
| Siege lifted | Spring 538 | Goths withdraw |
Aid Sent to Ariminium
Once the Gothic army left Rome, they focused their efforts on Ariminium, a city with a small Roman garrison running low on supplies. The troops under Vitiges began pressuring Ariminium, hoping it would fall due to shortages.
Belisarius joined forces with Narses after receiving an urgent request for help from the city. Together, they coordinated support, splitting their armies into three groups to approach the besieging Goths from different directions. Hearing of the approaching relief forces, Vitiges realized his position was shaky and chose to retreat rather than face a possible defeat.
Main Details:
- Ariminium was in danger due to a shortage of food and supplies.
- Belisarius and Narses acted quickly to relieve the city.
- The Gothic army retreated upon learning of the renewed Roman effort.
List of actions:
- Ariminium requests allied help.
- Roman generals unite and plan relief.
- Goths abandon the siege.
Withdrawal of the Goths to Ravenna
After repeated setbacks, Vitiges led his army back to Ravenna, a stronghold at the heart of Gothic power in Italy. Meanwhile, Roman commanders continued to make gains in northern Italy, capturing several towns. Internal conflicts among the Romans, however, caused serious issues—they lost Mediolanum to the Goths during this confusion, and the city’s population suffered greatly.
As both armies were distracted, an unexpected attack by King Theudebert I of Austrasia and his Frankish troops shifted the balance again. He struck the Goths first, then surprised the Romans as well. Disease quickly broke out among the Franks, forcing their withdrawal, which allowed the Byzantines to regroup for a final assault on Ravenna.
By the time Belisarius prepared to besiege Ravenna, new diplomatic solutions were discussed. The Goths offered Belisarius the western crown, but he captured the city in the name of the empire instead.
Summary Table:
| Who | Where | What Happened |
|---|---|---|
| Vitiges & Goths | Ravenna | Retreated after multiple defeats |
| Roman generals | North Italy | Internal disputes, loss at Mediolanum |
| Franks under Theudebert | Po River | Surprise attacks, left due to disease |
Key Takeaways:
- Ravenna became the new focus after multiple setbacks.
- Roman divisions nearly reversed their progress.
- Outside powers briefly changed the direction of the fighting.
Surprise Events Shape the Campaign
Sudden Attack by Northern Tribes
Both the Byzantine and Gothic forces expected new troops to help the Ostrogoths, but the arrival of King Theudebert I of Austrasia with a large Frankish army caught everyone off guard. The Franks crossed into Northern Italy and launched a surprise assault on the Ostrogoths along the Po River.
- Result:ArmyOutcomeOstrogothsHeavy defeatByzantinesForced to retreatFranksVictors at first
The Byzantines, camped nearby, attempted to stand against the unexpected Frankish forces but were swiftly routed and pushed back toward Tuscany. This sudden move changed the power balance and confused both major sides on the battlefield.
Disease Forces Armies to Pull Back
The Frankish victory was short-lived. After their win against the Ostrogoths and the Byzantines, the Frankish army was soon devastated by an outbreak of dysentery.
- Plague Impact:
- Rapid spread among troops
- Large numbers became ill
- Forced the Franks to withdraw without seizing more territory
This unexpected outbreak meant the Franks could not maintain their foothold in Italy and removed a major threat for both the Byzantines and the Goths. The sudden loss of the Frankish army allowed the Byzantines to regroup and continue their campaign.
Key Takeaway:
Unpredictable enemies and disease created major shifts in the conflict, often more than planned military strategies.
Last Battle and What Happened After
Byzantine Tactics and Political Moves
The Byzantines mixed both military strength and political plans to end the fighting in Italy. As they closed in on Ravenna, Emperor Justinian sent messengers with a proposal to the Ostrogoths. The plan was to divide Italy and share rule, hoping this would allow the Byzantines to focus on threats elsewhere, especially from the Persians.
Many in the Byzantine ranks supported the idea because it promised a quick end to a costly war. The Ostrogoths seemed willing to accept, but not everyone agreed with this approach.
Key Points:
- Justinian’s offer: Divide Italy, share control
- Byzantine hopes: End war quickly, shift forces east
- Mixed reactions: Some soldiers supported it, some, including Belisarius, did not
Belisarius’ Decision in Ravenna
Belisarius did not support Justinian’s plan. He was determined to finish the campaign as planned. Even when the Ostrogoths tried to sway him with an offer to rule the Western Empire, Belisarius stayed loyal to Constantinople.
Important events in Ravenna:
- Belisarius led the final push and entered the city.
- He took Ravenna for the Byzantine Empire, not for himself.
- Local leaders who hoped he would rule on their behalf were disappointed.
| Events | Belisarius’ Response |
|---|---|
| Ostrogoths surrender offer | Stayed loyal to Byzantium |
| Offer to be Western Emperor | Chose Empire over personal gain |
| Entered Ravenna | Secured the city for Byzantines |
Journey Back to the Capital
After securing victory in Ravenna, Belisarius returned to Constantinople. Many believed he deserved to be celebrated as a hero for his achievements. However, he did not receive a warm welcome.
Emperor Justinian and others distrusted him because of his high reputation and the power he had gained. Instead of rewards or new commands, Belisarius faced suspicion and doubt from those in the capital.
- What happened upon return:
- Belisarius was not celebrated.
- Suspicion from the emperor overshadowed his success.
- The general’s loyalty did not end the mistrust he faced.
Summary Table:
| Outcome | Result |
|---|---|
| Victory in Ravenna | Belisarius secures the city |
| Return to capital | Faces distrust, not praise |
