Cicero (106 – 43 BC) – The Most Famous Roman Orator

Marcus Tullius Cicero remains one of the most significant figures from ancient Rome, whose influence extends far beyond his own lifetime. Born in 106 BC in Arpinum, Rome, he was a renowned philosopher, orator, and statesman. As a lawyer, he was known for his eloquent speeches, which have been preserved and continue to be studied for their linguistic richness and style. Through his writings on the republic and laws, Cicero sought to adapt Greek political theories to Roman society, aiming to establish a harmonious and just state.

Beyond the courtroom and the Senate, his philosophical works contributed to the development of Roman and later Western philosophy. His exploration of ethics, particularly in his work ‘De Officiis,’ reveals a deep understanding of what it meant to live a good life within the context of one’s public and private duties. Despite facing political upheaval and personal risk during his career, Cicero’s discourse on duty, morality, and the law showcased his commitment to the Republic’s ideals and his pursuit of wisdom through academic endeavors and public service.

Key Takeaways

• Cicero was an influential philosopher, orator, and statesman in ancient Rome.
• His writings contributed significantly to both political theory and the study of ethics.
• His legacy includes a profound impact on the development of Western rhetoric and philosophy.

Early Life and Education

Birth and Origin

Born in 106 BC, Marcus Tullius Cicero came from Arpinum, a town located in the Volscian mountains. Despite being outside the political hub of Rome, his family was of equestrian rank, indicating a respectable status with significant means. Cicero’s familial connections laid the groundwork for his later ascent through Roman politics.

Academic Pursuits

From an early age, Cicero was immersed in education, with a strong emphasis on philosophy and law. His studies were conducted under prominent teachers in Rome, where he became well-versed in Greek philosophy and rhetoric. Philosophy would later underpin much of his political and literary work, demonstrating the influence of his education. Notable among his teachers was the philosopher Philo of Larissa, whose teachings on skepticism would have a lasting impact on Cicero’s thought processes and oratorial skills.

Area of Study	Details
Philosophy	Advanced study under Greek scholars in Rome
Law	Legal training preparing for a public career
Rhetoric	Learned the art of public speaking from distinguished orators

Rise Through the Cursus Honorum

Cicero’s educational background propelled him into the cursus honorum, the sequence of public offices that constituted a career in Roman politics. His first significant role was as a military tribune, which initiated his formal engagement with the machinery of the Roman state. Through a combination of his legal expertise, persuasive oration, and philosophical insights, he swiftly climbed the ranks, setting the stage for his eventual consulship. Cicero’s rise was noteworthy because of his novus homo status, meaning he was the first in his family to achieve a consul position in the Roman Republic.

Cicero’s Political Career

Cicero’s journey through Roman politics was marked by notable highs such as his consulship, which intersected with the infamous Catiline Conspiracy, and significant lows including his exile. Throughout his career, he was entangled with key figures like Pompey and Julius Caesar, who shaped much of the late Republic’s political landscape.

Consulship and the Catiline Conspiracy

In 63 BC, Cicero was elected consul, the highest office in the Roman Republic. His year as consul was dominated by the confrontation with Catiline, a patrician who led a conspiracy to overthrow the republic. His decisive action against this threat, culminating in the execution of the conspirators without trial, earned him fame and the gratitude of the Senate, but also set a controversial precedent concerning the powers of the consulship.

Alliance with Pompey and Julius Caesar

Following his consulship, Cicero aligned with Pompey, a leading military and political figure, and indirectly with Julius Caesar, who rose to power as part of the First Triumvirate, which also included Crassus. This alliance was pragmatic; though Cicero was initially wary of Caesar’s ambitions, he recognized the need to navigate the complexities of the existing power structures. This period was characterized by his efforts to maintain stability within the Republic while managing his relationship with the political heavyweights of his time.

Governorship and Exile

In 58 BC, Cicero’s political challenges escalated when his enemies forced him into exile. This period away from Rome resulted from his contentious decisions during his consulship and the shifting political allegiances within the Senate. His exile was a significant setback; however, he returned to Rome a year later, thanks in part to the intervention of the Senate and Pompey. Upon his return, Cicero was appointed governor of Cilicia, where he demonstrated his adherence to Roman political and legal norms away from the epicenter of power.

Opposition to Julius Caesar

His relationship with Julius Caesar was complex and evolved from cautious support to clear opposition. As Caesar’s power grew and he crossed the Rubicon to challenge Rome, Cicero sided with the Republic and against the emergence of dictatorial power. He feared the end of the Republic and saw Caesar’s actions as a direct threat to the Roman political structure. His stance against Caesar became one of the defining aspects of his late career, illustrating his commitment to Republican principles. But when Caesar was assassinated, his misery was only postponed.

Death and Impact on Later Generations

Opposition to Mark Antony

Cicero was opposed to Mark Antony, whom he saw as a threat to the Roman Republic. He expressed his contempt through a series of speeches known as the Philippics, which mirrored those of Demosthenes against Philip of Macedon. Cicero’s orations condemned Antony’s actions and sought to protect the state from autocratic rule. This animosity played a substantial role in the political dynamics leading up to Cicero’s death.

End of Life and Execution

In 43 BC, as the tensions between the republican forces and the Second Triumvirate escalated, Cicero was declared an enemy of the state. The Triumvirate, which included Mark Antony, ordered his execution. They captured and executed him outside his villa in Formia. Cicero met his death with dignity; his last words were said to be an acknowledgment of his impending fate, showcasing his strength of character even in the face of death.

Cicero’s Influence on Modern Thinking

Cicero’s impact on future generations is extensive, particularly in shaping the intellectual underpinnings of the Enlightenment and modern democratic thought. His writings influenced key figures such as John Locke and Montesquieu, and through them, the very foundations of modern governance. Furthermore, Augustus, Antony’s ally in the Triumvirate, reportedly later regretted Cicero’s death, indicating the complex nature of his political and personal relationships. His legacy endures as his works continue to be studied for their eloquent expression and compelling defense of republican ideals, reflecting the timeless nature of his mind and character.

Philosophy and Works

Cicero’s Contributions to Philosophy

Cicero was a heavyweight in shaping Roman thought, especially in introducing Greek philosophy to his contemporaries. His approach was eclectic, often merging Stoic, Academic, and Peripatetic doctrines to form his own philosophical stances. He advanced the idea that philosophy can offer guidance in personal morality and political responsibility. Through his rhetorical skills, he exposed the Roman audience to philosophical discourse, emphasizing the importance of philosophy for public life.

Major Philosophical Works

Among his extensive body of work, several philosophical treatises stand out:

• De Finibus Bonorum et Malorum (On the Ends of Good and Evil) examines the ethical theories of different philosophical schools.
• Tusculan Disputations addresses human emotions and the quest for happiness, reflecting on death, pain, and grief.
• De Natura Deorum (On the Nature of the Gods) discusses the views of the Epicureans, Stoics, and Academics on the gods.
• De Re Publica (On the Republic) and De Legibus (On the Laws) are significant for their insights into political philosophy.
• De Oratore delves into the art of rhetoric, embodying Cicero’s belief that a great orator must also be a good philosopher.

Cicero and Stoicism

Although not a Stoic himself, Cicero was deeply influenced by Stoic thought. His interpretation of Stoicism is evident in works like De Re Publica and De Legibus, where he extols the virtues of justice, wisdom, courage, and moderation. These works, along with others, underpin the Stoic ideal that only a life lived virtuously in accordance with reason and nature can lead to true fulfillment. Cicero’s approach to philosophy celebrated the utility of Stoic principles when applied to governance and the development of rhetoric.

Through his philosophical endeavors, Cicero bridged the gap between Greek philosophical ideas and Roman societal norms, underscoring the potential of philosophy to elevate both individual and public life. His influence on the philosophy of language and argumentation remains enduring, evident in modern fields ranging from ethics to political theory.

Controversies and Criticisms

Political Decisions

His political career was not without controversy. One of the most debated actions he took was the execution without trial of five alleged co-conspirators during the Catilinarian conspiracy. This act led to his exile and criticism from some of his contemporaries. Despite this, Cicero remained a popular figure and was eventually able to return to Rome.

Philosophical Inconsistencies

Cicero’s philosophical views have also been criticized for their inconsistencies. He was known for borrowing ideas from various schools of thought, including Stoicism, Epicureanism, and Academic skepticism. Some have argued that this eclectic approach led to contradictions in his philosophical writings.

Personal Life

Cicero’s personal life was not without controversy either. He was known for his extramarital affairs, which were not uncommon among Roman politicians of the time but still in contrast to his writings about morality. Despite these personal issues, he remained a respected and influential figure in Roman society.

Literary Legacy and Rhetorical Mastery

Oratory Influence

Cicero’s speeches stand as paramount examples of Roman eloquence, influencing oratory into the modern era. They often utilized a masterful blend of logical argumentation, emotional appeal, and moral suasion. His speech “Pro Caelio” is a notable example, showcasing his skill in turning the political and legal tides of the time. His oratorical techniques and teachings were detailed in works such as “De Oratore,” which not only outlined the principles of effective speaking but also embedded the moral responsibilities of the orator.

Correspondence and Letters

Cicero’s letters offer a wealth of information on the day-to-day life of late Republican Rome. They were not crafted as literary artifacts but rather composed for genuine personal and political communication, offering a candid window into Cicero’s personal relations and political maneuvers. The collection of his letters to friends, family, and political contemporaries has become an indispensable primary source for understanding the period’s history.

Letters to Friends and Family

Cicero’s letters to his friends and family are particularly insightful, as they reveal his personal relationships and emotions. For example, his letters to his wife Terentia illustrate the challenges of maintaining a marriage during a time of political turmoil. In one letter, he expresses frustration with her overspending and demands that she manage their finances more carefully.

Cicero’s letters to his close friend Atticus are also notable for their candor and humor. In one letter, he jokes about his own baldness and compares himself to the philosopher Socrates. These letters offer a glimpse into Cicero’s personality and sense of humor, as well as his relationships with those closest to him.

Letters as Historical Sources

In addition to their personal insights, Cicero’s letters are also valuable historical sources. They provide firsthand accounts of major events such as the Catiline conspiracy and the civil war between Julius Caesar and Pompey. His letters also shed light on the political and social climate of ancient Rome, as well as the daily lives of its citizens.

Scholars have used Cicero’s letters to reconstruct the political and social networks of ancient Rome, as well as to gain insights into the personalities and motivations of key historical figures. For example, Cicero’s letters to his friend and fellow politician Caelius provide valuable information about the political maneuverings and power struggles of the late Roman Republic.

Cicero as a Writer and Scholar

Cicero distinguished himself as a writer and scholar through his works on philosophy, the art of rhetoric, and political treatises. His philosophical writings brought Greek thought to Roman readers, adapting it within a Latin context and promoting the Hellenistic schools of philosophy. His rhetorical treatises, on the other hand, were not merely theoretical. They were grounded in his own legal and political career, reflecting on rhetoric’s role in shaping public affairs and defending justice.

People Also Ask:

What are the major contributions of Cicero to philosophy?

Cicero is widely recognized as one of the most important philosophers of the Roman Republic. He contributed significantly to the development of Stoicism, a philosophical school that emphasized the importance of virtue, reason, and self-control. Cicero was also a proponent of skepticism, which held that knowledge is uncertain and that it is impossible to know anything with absolute certainty.

How did Cicero influence the development of rhetoric?

Cicero is often regarded as one of the greatest orators in history, and his writings on rhetoric have had a profound impact on the development of Western rhetoric. He believed that the purpose of rhetoric was to persuade, and he emphasized the importance of clear and concise language, logical argumentation, and emotional appeal.

What are some notable works of Cicero that have survived?

He wrote extensively on a wide range of topics, including philosophy, politics, and rhetoric. Some of his most famous works include “De Oratore,” a treatise on rhetoric, and “De Re Publica,” a dialogue on political philosophy. Cicero’s letters, which provide insights into his personal life and political career, are also highly regarded.

How did Cicero’s political career impact his philosophical writings?

Cicero’s political career had a significant impact on his philosophical writings. As a politician, He was deeply committed to the principles of the Roman Republic, and his writings often reflect his belief in the importance of civic duty, virtue, and the rule of law. His philosophical works are also characterized by a concern for practical ethics and the application of philosophical principles to everyday life.

In what ways did Cicero’s ideas shape the Western legal and political theory?

Cicero’s ideas have had a profound impact on Western legal and political theory. His emphasis on the importance of natural law, civic duty, and the rule of law has influenced the development of Western legal and political institutions. His writings on political philosophy have also been influential in shaping debates about the nature of democracy, citizenship, and the role of government.

What circumstances led to the assassination of Cicero?

Cicero’s outspoken criticism of Julius Caesar and his support for the Roman Republic made him a target for political retribution. Following Caesar’s assassination in 44 BC, he became a vocal opponent of Mark Antony, one of Caesar’s allies. In retaliation, Antony ordered Cicero’s execution, and he was killed in 43 BC.

What is the main idea of Cicero?

He held that the laws of nature were more important than the laws of men and governments. He believed that any leader who defied natural law was, by definition, a tyrant. In his own words, ‘natural law is right reason, consonant with nature, common to every man, constant, eternal.